Section 9.3 Types of Conjunctions
Now that we have distinguished clauses from phrases, we need to understand the words that connect them. English has three types of connecting words, each with different grammatical properties and punctuation rules. Recognizing them is essential for building and punctuating multi-clause sentences correctly.
Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS).
The seven coordinating conjunctions join grammatically equal elements—two noun phrases, two verb phrases, or two independent clauses. The acronym FANBOYS helps you remember them:
| Conjunction | Relationship | Example |
|---|---|---|
| For | reason/cause | We hurried home, for a storm was approaching. |
| And | addition | She writes poetry, and he composes music. |
| Nor | negative addition | The store wasn’t open, nor was anyone answering. |
| But | contrast | I finished the book, but I didn’t understand it. |
| Or | alternative | We can meet at noon, or we can reschedule. |
| Yet | contrast (surprising) | The task seemed simple, yet it took hours. |
| So | result/effect | The restaurant was packed, so we ordered takeout. |
The choice of conjunction shapes meaning. And simply adds one idea to another. But and yet introduce contrast or surprise. So announces a result; for signals a reason. Or presents an alternative; nor negates both options. Selecting a conjunction is not just a grammar decision—it is a decision about how the two ideas relate.
Punctuation: When a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, place a comma before the conjunction:
“The lecture was fascinating, and I took detailed notes.”
No comma is needed when the conjunction joins phrases rather than clauses: She writes poetry and prose (compound NP—no comma).
Subordinating Conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions transform an independent clause into a dependent one. They attach to the beginning of a clause and make it unable to stand alone—it now needs a main clause to complete it. The choice of conjunction specifies the relationship between the two clauses:
| Relationship | Conjunctions | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Time | when, while, before, after, until, since, once | When the bell rang, students left. |
| Cause/Reason | because, since, as, now that | She smiled because she understood. |
| Contrast | although, though, even though, whereas | Although it rained, they played outside. |
| Condition | if, unless, provided that, as long as | We will go if the weather clears. |
| Purpose | so that, in order that | She studied hard so that she could pass. |
Punctuation: When the dependent clause comes first, place a comma after it. When it comes last, usually no comma is needed:
-
DC first: Because it rained, we stayed inside.
-
DC last: We stayed inside because it rained.
Conjunctive Adverbs.
Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs—not conjunctions—that signal logical relationships between ideas. Unlike coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs do not grammatically join clauses. They can appear in any clause, including a simple sentence:
“The test was difficult. However, most students passed.”
These are two separate simple sentences. The conjunctive adverb however signals a contrast between them, but it does not connect them into a single sentence. It is an adverb inside the second clause, not a bridge between clauses.
Common conjunctive adverbs, grouped by the relationship they signal:
| Relationship | Conjunctive Adverbs |
|---|---|
| Addition | moreover, furthermore, additionally, also |
| Contrast | however, nevertheless, nonetheless, instead |
| Result | therefore, thus, consequently, hence |
| Time | meanwhile, subsequently, afterward, then |
| Example | for example, for instance, specifically |
When two clauses are closely related and you want to keep them in a single sentence, a semicolon can join them. A conjunctive adverb may then appear in the second clause to make the relationship explicit:
“The test was difficult; however, most students passed.”
Notice that it is the semicolon that connects the two clauses into one sentence—not the conjunctive adverb. The adverb simply clarifies the logical relationship. A semicolon can also join two clauses without any conjunctive adverb at all:
“The test was difficult; most students passed.”
Punctuation: A comma always follows the conjunctive adverb to set it off from the rest of its clause. The clauses themselves are joined by a semicolon (one sentence) or separated by a period (two sentences). Using only a comma between the clauses—The test was difficult, however, most students passed—creates a comma splice.
